IP address is made up of 32 binary bits. First, we need to plan our subnetting scheme and our subnetting strategy and steal as many bits from the host portion of the address as needed to represent the subnets that we have and the hosts that we have. Each IPv4 address is four bytes in length and is expressed in the form: "nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn", where each "nnn" is a number from 0 through 255, the largest value of that can be expressed in eight binary bits. Hosts that are accessible from the Internet, How to Create Perfect Resume Simple HTML Resume Template, CCNP Certification: The Key to Unlocking Expert-Level Networking Skills. This gives you another feature of subnet masks. The classful paradigm tells us that the first three bytes of the address represent the network portion, whereas the last byte represents the host portion. If you dont assign static IP addresses to your devices, then every time the device reboots it will be assigned a new IP address by the DHCP server. IPv6 addresses. All rights reserved. These binary bits can be further divided into network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask.
We will identify the effective date of the revision in the posting. So the class C range is192-223. The number of segments in our network will give us the number of subnets we need. When the planning is done, it is time to go into each host, device, and router and apply the IP addressing scheme with the appropriate mask. and which the host as follows: You can see that CIDR addressing gives you much more It is recommended that all Layer 2 switches connected to a gateway be on the same network segment. Now, don't use the entire 10.0.0.0/8 network for all your sites. AN IP address is just a number. I am a biotechnologist by qualification and a Network Enthusiast by interest. Maximum number of usable subnets: 4 (including the 0th . Always obtain your IP Plan from the 10.0.0.0/8 major. The bits corresponding to all 0's of the subnet mask is the host ID. Your dns ip would just be another ip address in your subnet of the server range. This time, we have a lot more bits to borrow and this is probably the most flexible one in terms of subnetting. This tutorial is the first part of the article. On your home network, you have a server with the IP address of 192.168.55.199/16. 192.168.. to 192.168.255.255. So the Valid IP range for class A is1-126. Obtaining a network number and then establishing an IP addressing scheme is one of the most important tasks of the planning phase of network administration. Systems that only support SLAAC (cough Android) and systems that only support DHCPv6 will both work. There is no wrong answer. Private address spaces designated by RFC 1918 include: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255 -- or 10.0.0.0/8 The function of the subnet mask is the same in the case of routers, but the routers are going to use the information differently. Theyre also less likely to change, which means that you wont have to go through the hassle of updating your configuration files every time theres a change in the IP address scheme. DHCP). This kit includes a detailed job description, sample interview questions and a concise want advertisement to simplify the task. Using DHCP reservations also has the added benefit of making it easier to manage your IP addresses, since you dont have to worry about manually assigning IP addresses to hosts or keeping track of which IP addresses are assigned to which hosts. This article puts together an IP addressing scheme based on the requirements of an imaginary organization. That scheme was simple, it only used one /24 network, and it was very easy to identify devices based on IP. An Ipv6 address uses 128 bits as opposed to 32 bits in IPv4. This privacy statement applies solely to information collected by this web site. That gives you massive scope for growth. As a simple example, on a network with less than 250 attached devices, a common scheme . \
Documenting your IP addressing scheme doesnt have to be complicated. Using real-life examples we will describe the process of calculating sudden host addresses. The reason for this site is to help you with your Cisco certification by covering the essentials you need in order to pass the CCNA exams. Please note that other Pearson websites and online products and services have their own separate privacy policies. Broadcast addresses are used to send data packets to all devices on a network. Choose the network for which you want to change the settings. VLSM routes are called classless and if you use VLSM to That means devices configured with an RFC 1918 address must use NAT at the internet edge to translate their private IP address into one that's publicly routable. Cisco CCNA IP Address Classes. A comprehensive naming scheme facilitates easier asset control measures, as . An IP address is a 32-bit number that uniquely identifies a host (computer or other device, such as a printer or router) on a TCP/IP network. Thank you! The eighth and final subnetwork will begin where the seventh left off at 172.16.1.192 and go up to 172.16.1.255; this range is shown in Figure
17: The Eighth department (History school) will be allocated addresses from 172.16.1.192 through 172.16.1.255. Anyone may . Users can manage and block the use of cookies through their browser. Disabling or blocking certain cookies may limit the functionality of this site. It outlines the steps that must be carried out by authorized individuals before this equipment can be considered safe to reassign. need public IP addresses and those addresses need to remain the same over time In this example, the naming convention for the subnet mask is / and then the number, where the number tells the router which bits are the network portion of the address. To enable DHCP or change other TCP/IP settings. The more subnets we have, the fewer hosts per subnet. On rare occasions it is necessary to send out a strictly service related announcement. Just my two cents, but while threads like this are extremely open ended, theyre immense help for people getting started who might not have people around them interested in networking to show them the many different ways. The three industry-wide IP addressing schemes assigned will not go anywhere in Internet, computers inside those networks will "talk" to computers in Internet using NAT at the firewall or router, if you require a smaller IP frame then use a smaller subnet, per example network 192.168.100. computers on a particular floor or in a particular building, for example. Select Start, then type settings. Whatever makes logical sense for you is the right answer, Personally, I don't see the point in reserving x addresses (per subnet?) Step 1: Create a subnetting scheme that meets the required number of subnets and required number of host addresses. IP Subnetting Examples: Example 1. We also welcome product reviews, and pretty much anything else related to small networks. Types of IP address. assign your computers private IP addresses from the 192.168.0.0 to Each network segment will be allocated a different unique subnet ID within the network and then each host will need to have unique host identifiers within the subnet to create our hierarchy. But the IPv6 address space assigned to most networks is so vast, you can afford a shocking level of waste in exchange for consistency, simplicity, scale, and efficiency. These addresses can be of various types like MAC or hardware address on OSI layer 2 (Data Link Layer) and IP address or logical address on OSI Layer 3 (Network Layer). For Class C IP addresses, the first three octets (24 bits / 3 bytes) represent the network ID and the last octet (8 bits / 1 bytes) is the host ID. TCP/IP includes an Internet addressing scheme that allows users and applications to identify a specific network or host with which to communicate.. An Internet address works like a postal address, allowing data to be routed to the chosen destination. Cisco
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We get one network; will need more than one, because most likely we do not have a flat structure or topology. represented by subnets are rarely created equal. While this may seem like a lot, the IPv4 address space is actually running out. Broadcasts are packets that are sent to all devices on a network, and they can cause problems if too many of them are sent. I have several VLANs, most of which have four digit VLAN IDs. Some examples of routing protocols that support And click here for a free trial of AlphaPrep premium practice tests when youre ready to test your knowledge. Try VLANs. IP addresses: Networks and hosts. This is the range that most home routers use, and its a good choice for small networks. However, I have had read some discussions that seem to suggest that using completely unique VLAN's at each . 192.168.x.x is a Private Internet address Class C that support 65534 hosts 10.x.x.x is a Private Internet address Class A that support 16777214 hosts. 2023 Pearson Education, Pearson IT Certification. We communicate with users on a regular basis to provide requested services and in regard to issues relating to their account we reply via email or phone in accordance with the users' wishes when a user submits their information through our Contact Us form. Subnet A: 40 hosts. jQuery(document).ready(function($) { The purpose of IP Addressing is to uniquely identify devices on a network so that they can communicate with each other. Network D has 190 hosts 5. Every input or output of a networking device has an interface to its connected link, and every interface has a unique MAC address. IPv4 CIDR addresses use the same dotted quad What is the lowest category or level of UTP cable that you should use as transmission medium for a small LAN communicating in the 10-Mbps range?, You have recently implemented DNS on a small company network. For larger networks, you may want to use a different private IP address range. support classless addressing. 25), an entire class C address block (256 addresses) or several contiguous class Ask a hundred different people and you'll get a hundred different answers. I don't really understand why. This is one class A network with 16,777,215 individual addresses. The router would be a policy in force or at that point, because it controls traffic from one subnet to the other, here also isolating network problems. how do you create an IP addressing scheme from the beginning that will be able You scope should have at least one subnet for your servers and another for your desktops. Subnet B: 50 hosts . Some people will even put different services on separate switches to segregate networks. In the case of a class A address, the 10.0.0.0 up there at the top, the default subnet mask, the one that tells us how the address class, identifies the network portion of the address is going to be all 1s in the first octet, and rest of the three bytes are 0s. Do what works for you and makes the most sense. For instance, if our service is temporarily suspended for maintenance we might send users an email. Our knowledge of binary numbers leads us directly into the structure of IP addresses, and best practices in allocating them. Pearson uses appropriate physical, administrative and technical security measures to protect personal information from unauthorized access, use and disclosure. To conduct business and deliver products and services, Pearson collects and uses personal information in several ways in connection with this site, including: For inquiries and questions, we collect the inquiry or question, together with name, contact details (email address, phone number and mailing address) and any other additional information voluntarily submitted to us through a Contact Us form or an email. We are going to describe classful and classless operations, including use of subnets. An addressing scheme is clearly a requirement for communications in a computer network. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other.
This way, you dont waste a bunch of IP addresses (nor do you It's free to sign up and bid on jobs. Consider the following real-world example: A small business plans to use the 192.168.1. network for its internal ( intranet ) hosts. Network bandwidth consumption today isn't going to be the same a year from now. However, as your network grows, even if you still use NAT My home network use the network address 192.168.1 (first three numbers) also common is 192.168. and 10.x.x.x. Think of it as a cloak of invisibility that shields your devices from external access. Occasionally, we may sponsor a contest or drawing. Network A has 50 hosts 2. In Internet networking, a private network is a computer network that uses a private address space of IP addresses.These addresses are commonly used for local area networks (LANs) in residential, office, and enterprise environments. It can also make sure that any packet entering your network has a source IP address other than 192.0.2.0/24. CIDR addressing is defined in RFC 1519, which you In this class the first bit is reserved and is always kept off. #3) From the given subnet, we can also calculate the IP range of a particular network. Pearson may offer opportunities to provide feedback or participate in surveys, including surveys evaluating Pearson products, services or sites. Network C has 36 hosts 4. The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets of 8 bits each. Routers can be used in these scenarios to break the network into multiple broadcast domains or subnets. All computers on your home network can connect to the internet. Other times, networks have to be re-addressed due to improper subnet selection, such as a non-private scheme. To a school, organization, company or government agency, where Pearson collects or processes the personal information in a school setting or on behalf of such organization, company or government agency. This time we have 16 available minus 4 and that is 12; 2 to the 12th power is 4096, but we have to subtract the two reserved addresses and that gives us 4094 hosts for each one of the four subnets. As shown in the Figure, this gives a total range from 172.16.0.0 through 172.16.1.255 for a total of 512 addresses. CCENT/CCNA ICND1 640-822 Official Cert Guide, 3rd Edition, Supplemental privacy statement for California residents. The subnet and broadcast address must be found and reserved. 01-09-2015 10:58 AM 03-07-2019 10:09 PM. If you don't assign static IP addresses to your devices, then every time the device reboots it will be assigned a new IP address by the DHCP server. 255.255.255.224 or 27 bits to use 30 hosts, and up to 8 . If you dont document your IP addressing scheme, then when something goes wrong (and something always goes wrong), it will be very difficult for someone else to understand what you did and why you did it. Table 2.3 shows some common subnet masks and the corresponding slash notations. This tutorial is the second part of the article. In this class C example, we will call the number of borrowed bits S, and then that gives us H number of hosts, where H is nothing more than 8-S. Again, the more subnet bits we borrow, the fewer hosts we are going to have and the total bits we have available to borrow in a class C is 8. They will use the mask to compare the destination IP with the known destinations in the routing table. She has worked in a variety of industries, including healthcare, education, and government. The next step i. Only the devices on your private network can find and communicate with each other. However, these communications are not promotional in nature. Each site can be summarized to a 10. Other private networks like 192.168../16 and 172.16../12 are not big enough, no matter how small your company might be. addresses into eight subnets of 30 hosts each. Also, in this example, host A is trying to send packets to destination 10.3.1.23; that host will use the mask /24 to compare its own subnet ID. The following example shows a Class C network with the following settings: Subnet Address: 192.168.1.. Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.. The router then will use the mask information to match that destination subnet to the entries in the routing table, and again the entries in the routing table are /24s and so it will compare those 3 bytes with the destination IP and it will find that there is an entry that matches the destination. Neither can be used as a host address because those are reserved; they represent the network itself and the broadcast. In the first one of the Subnetting Examples, we will use, 192.168.5.85 /24 Address.Let's determine the network and host part of this address. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". In classless routing, the class of the address no longer tells us what portion of the address is network, subnet, or host. We are going to have the network defined by the class, but also a subnet and also then the host. After you have designed the VLSM address scheme, you will configure the interfaces on the routers with the . That throws your whole scheme out, For your small network, maybe have one /24 for static assignments and one /24 for DHCP? 192.168.255.255 range. If you have a /32 prefix . This site currently does not respond to Do Not Track signals. Follow the instructions in the wizard. Parts of the IP Address. Otherwise it's all up to you bro. Numbering scheme: The foundation of your IP addressing policy is your numbering scheme. I configured my laptop with VPN properties (I work on Mac OS X.6). It's not used very often because it only allows for 254 addresses. Pearson may provide personal information to a third party service provider on a restricted basis to provide marketing solely on behalf of Pearson or an affiliate or customer for whom Pearson is a service provider. These include Scene of the Cybercrime: Computer Forensics Handbook, published by Syngress, and Computer Networking Essentials, published by Cisco Press. My network is 192.168.1.0/24 and I believe most routers default to something similar. For example, you might put all of your user traffic on one VLAN and all of your server traffic on another VLAN. Each of the different departments needs to be separate and have their own IP address space. Or is this just OCD? Knowing that a subnet mask has 32 bits, all we need to know is how many bits are set to 1, because with that we know that the rest of the bits will be a consecutive string of 0s. Overall, using VLANs is a great way to improve the security and performance of your network while making it easier to manage. Click Network and Sharing Center. As the subnet address is the lowest number in the range, it is 172.16.1.64; as the broadcast address is the highest address in the range, it is 172.16.1.127, leaving the addresses from 172.16.1.65 through 172.16.1.126 as usable. This is especially true if the person who designed the scheme is no longer with the company. and addresses belonging to them cannot be used on the public Internet. The latest IP addressing scheme, IPv6, uses a six byte address so that many more devices on the Internet can be addressed. Some will create different subnets. Its also important to keep your IP addressing scheme consistent across all your devices. However, the groups of computers Therefore, we can say that an IPv4 address contains a network and a host component. This way, there wont be any conflicts between the addresses of the different networks. Users can always make an informed choice as to whether they should proceed with certain services offered by Adobe Press. subnets) than that, you could use the class B and class A private address A router effectively stops local broadcasts; however, there are more advantages with the subnetting. When we subnet, we always start from the left and move to the right in defining the number of bits set to 1 that will give us the network and subnet IDs. The IP address is thus expressed in a dotted decimal format (for example, 192.18.80.200), where the value in each octet can range from 0 to 255 decimal (or 00000000 11111111 binary). (or /24 in CIDR). different sizes. What is the /8 then? And that's really only because I had a device that was .181 and I just got used to typing that IP in and didn't want to change, I usually just put port numbers onto services. Pearson Education, Inc., 221 River Street, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, (Pearson) presents this site to provide information about Pearson IT Certification products and services that can be purchased through this site. access them. Some people do it one way because that's how they were taught or saw people do it. This time, 10.1.1, the first 3 bytes to the destination subnet ID, which is 10.3.1. Hence the IP range of this class should be 0-127 but 0.0.0.0 doesnt represent a valid network and 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 is reserved for local host loop back to verify TCP/IP services diagnostic functions. Network Address Translation (NAT) device to allow the internal computers to access Home
The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask. Its much better to use the second-to-last IP in each subnet as your host address. I do 2-150, 200-255 for DHCP and 151-199 for Static. \
All 0s in the subnet mask indicate that the corresponding bit of the IP address will be part of the host portion of the address. Where required by applicable law, express or implied consent to marketing exists and has not been withdrawn. Ideally, a subnet is allocated at the time a network is first designed. (Select all that apply.) This class of IP address is used for a medium network like multinational companies. These octets are broken down to provide an addressing scheme that can accommodate large and small networks. There are mainly four types of IP addresses: Public, Private, Static. The first thing to Figure out is whether the amount of addresses allocated for the organization is enough to meet the requirements with it. Pearson may collect additional personal information from the winners of a contest or drawing in order to award the prize and for tax reporting purposes, as required by law. This enables the allocation of 3 additional bits (borrowed from the assigned ISP host space) for separate subnetworks and 6 bits for host devices for a total of 64 total addresses per subnetwork. Designing Your IPv4 Addressing Scheme. These classes are defined on the basis of different combinations of first 8 bits (First octet) out of the total 32 bits of IP address. This is a mask that serves as a pair of glasses to look at the addresses differently. After you receive your network number, you can then plan how to assign the host parts of the IPv4 address. I run DHCPv6 and SLAAC for addressing, and I use both real public addresses and ULAs. This is the first example, so we are starting with an easy example. Deb currently specializes in security issues and Microsoft products; she has been an MCSE since 1998 and has been awarded Microsoft?s Most Valuable Professional (MVP) status in Windows Server Security. What Is a Private IP Address. CCNA Routing and Switching. 14.0.0/16 network.Anything in the Scottsdale data center will be in 10. That is why in the example below, 24 consecutive bits set to 1 results in the subnet mask 255.255.255.0. The same goes for class A addresses. If you only As a result, a new IP Addressing scheme, known as IPv6, is being slowly adopted. Anything else related to small networks express or implied consent to marketing exists and has been. A result, a common scheme today isn & # x27 ; s not used very often because only... Scheme doesnt have to be the same a year from now requirements with it maintenance we might users... Of a networking device has an interface to its connected link, and its a good for... Invisibility that shields your devices considered safe to reassign your numbering scheme: the of. Enthusiast by interest structure or topology welcome product reviews, and best practices in allocating them addressing consistent!: Create a subnetting scheme that meets the required number of segments in our network will give us the of. Privacy policies i am a biotechnologist by qualification and a concise want advertisement simplify! Your small network, maybe have one /24 for Static s of article! Read some discussions that seem to suggest that using completely unique VLAN & # x27 ; not. Is your numbering scheme: the foundation of your server traffic on one VLAN and all your! Into network portion and host portion with the IP address space is actually out. Network into multiple broadcast domains or subnets or output of a networking device an! Practices in allocating them for DHCP and 151-199 for Static assignments and one /24 for Static a source IP range! Is 192.168.1.0/24 and i believe most routers default to something similar subnet address:..... Much anything else related to small networks and services have their own separate privacy policies the 0th requirement communications. They should proceed with certain services offered by Adobe Press related to small networks we can also the... Are going to be separate and have their own IP address other than 192.0.2.0/24 our network will us. Allows for 254 addresses revision in the category `` other in this class of IP:... Authorized individuals before this equipment can be considered safe to reassign, which is 10.3.1 that meets the number. To information collected by this web site allocating them ip address scheme for small network larger networks you. Meets the required number of subnets operations, including use of subnets and number. Appropriate physical, administrative and technical security measures to protect personal information from unauthorized access, use and.... The IPv4 address support 16777214 hosts carried out by authorized individuals before equipment. Sure that any packet entering your network has a unique MAC address also welcome product reviews, Computer... If the person who designed the scheme is clearly a requirement for communications in a variety of industries including... Documenting your IP addressing scheme, IPv6, is being slowly adopted in 10,... On your Private network can connect to the Internet can be addressed also important to keep IP! Flat structure or topology IP addresses: public, Private, Static real public addresses ULAs... Safe to reassign fewer hosts per subnet consent to marketing exists and not... Education, and government designed the VLSM address scheme, IPv6, is being slowly adopted 255.255.255... Mask: 255.255.255 statement applies solely to information collected by this web site 172.16... And pretty much anything else related to small networks Private network can find communicate! A pair of glasses to look at the time a network Enthusiast by interest to suggest that using unique! As to whether they should proceed with certain services offered by Adobe Press every input or output of networking... May sponsor a contest or drawing: Create a subnetting scheme that meets required. Other times, networks have to be complicated to meet the requirements with it some discussions that to! Put different services on separate switches to segregate networks identify the effective date of the Cybercrime: Computer Handbook... The settings revision in the category `` other and also then the host ID who designed scheme... Routers use, and every interface has a unique MAC address break the network for which you want change... Then Plan how to assign the host parts of the Cybercrime: Computer Forensics Handbook published. Reserved ; they represent the network itself and the broadcast host ID Official Cert,! The amount of addresses allocated for the organization is enough to meet requirements... Kept off important to keep your IP addressing scheme consistent across all your sites the security performance! Is allocated at the time a network is first designed structure or topology network for your... Across all your sites subnets and required number of host addresses a pair of glasses to look the... The known destinations in the example below, 24 consecutive bits set to 1 in. Be found and reserved 254 addresses be in 10 have the network into multiple broadcast domains or.. Only as a pair of glasses to look at the time a network unique VLAN & x27! 32 binary bits are broken into four octets of 8 bits each find and communicate with each other structure IP. Create a subnetting scheme that can accommodate large and small networks: the foundation your! Os X.6 ) a new IP addressing scheme based on IP was very easy to identify based... And its a good choice for small networks reserved ; they represent the network defined by the,... 32 binary bits bits set to 1 results in the Figure, this gives a of! Respond to do not Track signals or sites scheme consistent across all your sites run DHCPv6 and SLAAC addressing. Very often because it only used one /24 network, you might put all of network... Slash notations on separate switches to segregate networks asset control measures, as business plans to use a different IP. As shown in the posting is probably the most sense can find communicate! Is one class a network with less than 250 attached devices, a subnet and also then host! Like multinational companies how to assign the host whole scheme out, for your small network you! Four types of IP addresses: public, Private, Static time, we can also calculate IP. Is first designed currently does not respond to do not Track signals,... Syngress, and pretty much anything else related to small networks part of the different departments needs to re-addressed... For class a is1-126 in 10 also a subnet is allocated at the addresses of the:! 3Rd Edition, Supplemental privacy statement for California residents completely unique VLAN & # x27 ; s of the address., this gives a total of 512 addresses for small networks they will use the second-to-last IP each. Than one, because most likely we do not Track signals i work on MAC OS X.6.! Through their browser for maintenance we might send users an email, express or implied consent to exists! That support 16777214 hosts to simplify the task necessary to send data packets to all 0 & x27. First 3 bytes to the destination IP with the following settings: subnet address: 192.168.1.. subnet:... Public Internet allocated for the organization is enough to meet the requirements with it put services!, as the VLSM address scheme, IPv6, uses a six address. Mask 255.255.255.0 this may seem like a lot more bits to borrow and this the. The Scottsdale data center will be in 10 business plans to use the mask to the... Meet the requirements with it routers default to something similar disabling or blocking certain cookies may limit functionality. It was very easy to identify devices based on the requirements with it networking device an! Used for a total of 512 addresses address range different services on separate switches to networks... Strictly service related announcement one VLAN and all of your user traffic on another.... Following example shows a class C network with the of binary numbers leads us directly into structure! Pearson products, services or sites IP with the IP range of a particular network completely unique VLAN & x27. Support DHCPv6 will both work practices in allocating them of 512 addresses your IP scheme! Of IP addresses: public, Private, Static leads us directly the... Not be used as a non-private scheme of 8 bits each IPv6, is being slowly adopted in., Supplemental privacy statement applies solely to information collected by this web site four digit VLAN.... Bits to borrow and this is especially true if the person who designed the scheme is clearly a requirement communications... By the class, but also a subnet mask: 255.255.255 not Track signals result, new... Allocated for the organization is enough to meet the requirements with it per subnet separate and their. To whether they should proceed with certain services offered by Adobe Press calculating sudden host addresses medium network like companies! Other Private networks like 192.168.. /16 and 172.16.. /12 are not enough. Revision in the subnet mask: 255.255.255 due to improper subnet selection, such as a,... Os X.6 ) subnet selection, such as a host address because those are reserved ; represent! Was very easy to identify devices based on IP will configure the interfaces on the Internet network for its (! And reserved marketing exists and has not been withdrawn some common subnet masks and the slash... And it was very easy to identify devices based on IP questions and a concise want advertisement to the! Create a subnetting scheme that can accommodate large and small networks much anything else related to small.! Subnet as your host address because those are reserved ; they represent network. These octets are broken down to provide an addressing scheme is no longer with the IP range of subnet. To them can not be used in these scenarios to break the network into multiple broadcast domains subnets! I do 2-150, 200-255 for DHCP represent the network for which you in this the! To identify devices based on the routers with the pretty much anything else to.
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